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Sumer, ancient country of western Asia, corresponding approximately to Babylonia of biblical times. After about 3250 BC, people migrating into the area later known as Sumer began to intermarry with the native population. The newcomers, who became known as Sumerians, spoke a language apparently unrelated to other known languages. They developed the cuneiform script, a system of writing on clay, which became the basic means of written communication throughout the Middle East for about 2000 years.

About 2800 BC Sumerian rulers established dynasties located at Kish and Erech. About 2670 BC these kingdoms fell to a dynasty with its capital at Ur. Sometime before the 25th century BC the Sumerian Empire was extended from the Zagros to the Taurus mountains and from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, but after about 2500 BC, it declined. The Sumerian city-states engaged in constant struggle with each other, exhausting their military resources.

By the 23rd century BC, Semitic ruler Sargon I had conquered the entire country, establishing a new capital called Agade in the north. In time the northern Sumerians and the invaders became known as Akkadians. This dynasty lasted about a century, until the Gutians overran Sumer. The Sumerians achieved independence from the Gutians under Utuhegal, king of Erech (reigned about 2120-2112 BC). Before the 2nd millennium BC the Amorites invaded, followed by the Elamites, who destroyed Ur. During the ensuing centuries, intercity struggle for control of the area occurred until Hammurabi of Babylon became ruler and ended the Sumerian state.

Before the mid-19th century AD, the Sumerians were not known to scholars. Their history has been reconstructed from fragmentary writings on clay tablets and from archaeological evidence. After excavations at Assyrian sites in what is now Iraq in the mid-1800s, scholars realized that some of the tablets discovered were in an unknown, non-Semitic language. The language was named Sumerian from the royal title King of Sumer and Akkad, which appeared in numerous inscriptions.Aramaic Language, Semitic language closely related to Hebrew. Originally the language of the Aramaeans, it was used in Mesopotamia and Syria before 1000 BC and later became the lingua franca of the Middle East. Ancient inscriptions in Aramaic have been found from Egypt to China. Aramaic began to decline in favor of the Arabic language at the time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century AD. Aramaic survives today in scattered communities in Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran.Ar·a·mae·an (ΰr΄e-mκΉen) adjective & noun

Variant of Aramean. Ar·a·me·an or Ar·a·mae·an (ΰr΄e-mκΉen) adjective Of or relating to Aram, its inhabitants, their language, or their culture.

noun 1. One of a group of Semitic peoples inhabiting Aram and parts of Mesopotamia from the 11th to the 8th century B.C. 2See Aramaic.

Assyria

Assyria, ancient Asian country, extending from about the northern border of present-day Iraq south to the Little Zab River in Iraq. The best-known cities of Assyria were Ashur, now Ash Sharqβt; Nineveh, now the excavated mound Kuyunjik; and Calah, now Nimrud.

Settled agriculture began in Assyria around 6500 BC. Later, probably in the 3rd millennium BC, Semitic nomads conquered the region. Assyrian culture, including literature, family life, marriage customs, and property laws, resembled that of Babylonia. Assyrian religious practices and beliefs were almost identical with those of Babylonia, except that the Assyrian national god, Ashur, was substituted for the Babylonian god Marduk.

In the 3rd millennium BC, Assyria was influenced by the Sumerian civilization to the south. Beginning about 2300 BC, Assyria formed part of the empire of Sumer and Akkad. Following the collapse of that empire about 2000 BC, the Amorites conquered Assyria. By 1850 BC Assyrian merchants had colonized parts of central Anatolia (Asia Minor).

About 1810 BC an Assyrian king, Shamshi-Adad I, extended Assyria to the Mediterranean Sea. This empire did not last long. In about 1760 BC Babylonian king Hammurabi defeated Assyria and incorporated it into the Babylonian Empire. About 1500 BC Assyria became a dependency of Mitanni, a kingdom that extended over all northern Mesopotamia. Assyria remained in subjection until early in the 14th century BC, when the Hittites defeated the Mitanni Kingdom. Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I (reigned 1364-1328 BC) freed Assyria and annexed some Mitanni territory. He was succeeded by a series of rulers who extended the Assyrian boundaries.

Beginning about 1200 BC, a new wave of migrations changed the face of western Asia. A group known as the Sea Peoples arrived in Anatolia. An Indo-European people called the Mushki became a constant threat to Assyria on the northwest. Assyria resisted these and other peoples and developed a powerful military that became the scourge of the entire Middle East. Assyrian rulers began to incorporate conquered lands into their domain, forming a new empire.

From 884 to 859 BC Ashurnasirpal II extended Assyrian land to the north and east. He moved the capital from Ashur to Calah. During the reign of Shalmaneser III (859-824 BC), civil war broke out, and Assyrian power declined for about 75 years. In 745 BC, however, Tiglath-pileser III occupied the throne and began reasserting royal authority. He established a permanent army, annexed the Aramaean states of Arpad and Damascus, subjugated the cities of Palestine, and made himself the ruler of Babylonia.

Sargon II (ruled 722-705 BC) extended Assyrian domination, and under him the Assyrian Empire became more powerful and extensive than ever before. His successors, however, tried to conquer Egypt and Elam and complete the subjugation of Babylonia. In doing so they weakened their armies on the northern frontiers. The Medes, Cimmerians, and Scythians gained strength.

Sennacherib succeeded Sargon and moved the capital from Dur Sharrukin to Nineveh. His son Ashurbanipal (ruled 669-627 BC) continued the Egyptian campaign, penetrating as far south as Thebes. A revolt in the court followed the death of Ashurbanipal in 627 BC, and little is known about what took place in Assyria after that date. The Medes, aided by the Babylonians, took the city of Ashur in 614 BC and captured Nineveh in 612 BC. The Assyrian army retreated to Harran. This defeat marked the end of the Assyrian Empire.Mesopotamia, one of the earliest centers of civilization, in the area of modern Iraq and eastern Syria between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. After 6000 BC early Mesopotamian settlements grew into cities. This early urban culture, which was probably Sumerian, spread north up the Euphrates and included the cities of Erech, Eridu, and Ur.

About 2330 BC the Akkadians, led by King Sargon I, conquered the region, and the Akkadian language began to replace Sumerian. Later, the 3rd Dynasty of Ur ruled much of Mesopotamia until about 2000 BC, and no city gained control of the region until Hammurabi of Babylon (reigned 1792?-1750? BC) united the area. The Hittites conquered Babylon in about 1595 BC, and for four centuries it was controlled by the Kassites.

Beginning about 1350 BC, Assyria began to assert itself, conquering Babylon about 1225 BC. Aramaean and Chaldean tribes overran Babylonia, but Assyria fought back. Between about 730 and 650 BC Assyria reached its greatest extent, but in 612 BC it collapsed. The Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar II ruled Mesopotamia until 539 BC, when Cyrus the Great of Persia captured Babylon.

After Alexander the Great conquered the region in 331 BC, the Greek dynasty of Seleucus I held Mesopotamia, bringing in Hellenistic culture and trade. About 250 BC the Parthians (see Parthia) took Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. They fell to the Sassanids in AD 224. Arab tribes conquered the region in 635, bringing with them a new religion, Islam. The Arabic language displaced Greek and Persian, and Baghdβd became the center of the Islamic empire under the Abbasid caliphs. The Ottomans and Safavid Persian rulers vied for control of Mesopotamia from the 16th to the 18th century, with the Turks prevailing. During World War I (1914-1918) British troops took the area. Iraq became independent in 1932, Syria in 1945.Semites, term first used in the late 18th century for peoples listed in the Bible as descended from Shem, the eldest son of Noah. Today the term Semite refers to peoples who speak any of the Semitic languages, including the ancient peoples who inhabited Aram, Assyria, Babylonia, and Phoenicia. Modern peoples speaking Semitic languages include the Arabs and Jews. Scholars do not know the original homeland of the Semites, but they think it was probably in southwestern Asia and possibly in Arabia. Today, the Semitic-speaking peoples are concentrated in the Middle East and Northern Africa.Hebrews (people), group of tribes thought to have migrated from Mesopotamia to Palestine during the 2nd millennium BC. The Hebrews moved to Egypt, where they were enslaved. After Moses led them from bondage in Egypt, they journeyed through the Wilderness (the Sinai) and, under Joshua, conquered and settled Palestine. The term Hebrew is applied in the Bible to Abraham. The name Hebrews seems to mean "those who pass from place to place." The Old Testament may suggest that in early times the Israelites were known to foreigners as Hebrews, and in later times applied the name to themselves (see Semites; Jews).Jehovah, name of the God of the Hebrew people as erroneously transliterated from the Masoretic Hebrew text. The word consists of the consonants JHVH or JHWH, with the vowels of a separate word, Adonai (Lord). The evidence of the Greek church fathers shows the forms Jabe and Jβo to be traditional, as well as the shortened Hebrew forms of the words Jah and Jahu. This evidence indicates that the name was originally spoken as Jaweh or Yahwe (often spelled Yahweh in modern usage). Etymologically, it is a third person singular, imperfect, probably of the verb hawah (or hajah), signifying "to be."Jews, in modern usage, synonymous with Hebrews and Israelites. As a general historical term, the word Hebrew is applied to any of numerous Semitic, nomadic tribes dwelling in the eastern Mediterranean area before 1300 BC. In Jewish history the term is applied to those tribes that accepted Yahweh (see Jehovah) as their deity. The term Israelite connotes a particular ethnic and national group, descended from the Hebrews and united by their religion. The term Jew refers to the cultural descendants of the first two, from the time of their return from the so-called Babylonian captivity to the present.

Modern Jews are members of a community that, in the face of incessant and terrible persecution, has maintained its identity for almost 19 centuries. The remarkable preservation of Jewish group identity has resulted, primarily, from strict adherence to Judaism, a religion that governs Jewish life in every aspect. A distinguishing characteristic of the Jewish people has been their respect for and devotion to education and learning, which are considered acts of worship.The Hebrews in Canaan

The Hebrew Scriptures tell of 12 tribes descended from the patriarch Jacob. Tradition and historical theory trace their ancestors to the district of Ur in Sumer, on the lower Euphrates River. About the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, a group of Aramaean tribes migrated to what is now Turkey. Several centuries later, members of these tribes settled around the Jordan River and became the Hebrew tribes. Some of the tribes migrated into Egypt, probably during the period between 1694 and 1600 BC. There they prospered at first, but were later forced into slavery. The Exodus from Egypt was led by Moses (the first great prophet), who received the covenant with Yahweh on Mount Sinai. Under Joshua, the successor to Moses, the tribes established themselves in western Palestine. During the period of the judges (the great military and civil leaders), the Hebrews, now known as the Israelites, secured their land.The Kingdom

With the accession of Saul, the first Israelite king, about 1020 BC, the Israelites became truly united as a political entity. With David, Saul's successor, the kingdom acquired greatness. In both Jewish history and religion, David is regarded as the true founder of Israel. He captured Jerusalem, broke the power of the Philistines, and established the religion of Israel as supreme in Palestine. David's son and successor, Solomon, built the Temple at Jerusalem and tried to strengthen the political position of his kingdom. About 922 BC, upon Solomon's death, the kingdom was divided into a northern kingdom (Israel) and a southern kingdom (Judah).

In the 700s BC Assyria advanced to the frontiers of the disorganized states. In 734 BC, while incessant quarreling separated the weakened Palestinian states, an Assyrian army invaded and conquered Israel. The kingdom of Judah became a tributary of Assyria. During the next century the balance of Middle Eastern power shifted to the Babylonian Empire, and in 598 BC the Babylonians conquered Jerusalem. Most of the Judean nobles, warriors, and artisans were taken to Babylon. In 588 BC a revolt against Chaldea left Judah destroyed and Jerusalem razed. All Judeans who were potential leaders of revolt were taken to Babylon, while another group fled to Egypt. The Babylonian captivity marked the end of the political independence of ancient Israel.Subject Judea

The Babylonian community retained its separate identity by replacing political Israel with spiritual Israel. The religion was ritualized and scribes began to compile the traditions of the Israelites in the books destined to become the Bible. In 539 BC Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, conquered Babylon. The next year he allowed about 42,000 members of the Israelite community in Babylon to return to Palestine, which still lay in ruin. The Jews turned their attention to rebuilding, and in 516 BC the Second Temple was completed. By the middle of the 4th century BC, Judea had become a country organized in accordance with formalized doctrines of belief and dominated by a powerful priesthood. The Torah, the books of the Law, governed every aspect of Jewish life.

In 331 BC Judea came under the rule of Alexander the Great. Jews migrated to colonies throughout the known world. Far removed from the center of Jewish life in Judea, the emigrants had to learn and use the Greek language and adopt Greek customs and ideas. In 198 BC Syria added Judea to its domains. King Antiochus IV proclaimed the Jewish religion illegal in 168 BC and replaced the altar to Yahweh in the temple with an altar to Zeus. An inevitable Jewish rebellion began the same year under the Jewish priest Mattathias and his sons, called the Maccabees. The Jewish forces defeated Syria, and the Maccabees became kings of an independent Jewish state. Like its predecessors, the new kingdom faced widespread factional conflict. During the last century BC a civil conflict erupted, and the Roman Army entered Jerusalem, subjecting Judea to Roman rule. The last century of the ancient Jewish state was marked by religious and political upheaval.

In AD 66 a violent insurrection was launched against Roman authority. By 70 the revolt was crushed, the temple was destroyed, and Jerusalem was razed. The Roman emperor Hadrian ordered Jerusalem rebuilt as a pagan city; at the same time he issued an edict banning circumcision. A second revolt occurred, and from 132 to 135 the Jews made a desperate stand. When the rebellion was finally put down by Rome, persecution of Jews became common throughout the empire.Postexilic Jews

The destruction of the second Jewish state and the surge of anti-Jewishness did not disorganize the Jews. During the first six centuries of the exile, the teachers and rabbis set down the great body of oral law and religious interpretation in the Mishnah and Gemara, known collectively as the Talmud. The principal centers of Jewish learning became academies in Palestine and in Babylonia. The rise of Islam did not disturb the Jewish communities of Babylonia. A period of Islamic tolerance resulted in a development of culture based on a combination of Greek, Muslim, and Jewish learning. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), persecution of Jews in Christian countries was the rule. In cities they were forced to live in ghettos and were not permitted freedom of movement. They were often the victims of mob violence and government oppression.Saul (lived 11th century BC), first king of ancient Israel, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin. His reign is recounted in 1 Samuel 8-15. A capable military leader, Saul gradually began experiencing periods of intense depression and became jealous of David, his future successor as king, ultimately attempting to kill him. Saul died battling the Philistines on Mount Gilboa‘ (in what is now Israel).Benjamin, in the Old Testament, youngest and most beloved son of Jacob and founder of the Israelite tribe of Benjamin (see Bible). The warriors of the tribe were noted for their skill in archery and cleverness in using the left hand. Both Saul (the first king of Israel) and Saint Paul belonged to the tribe of Benjamin.Jacob, in the Old Testament of the Bible, one of the Hebrew patriarchs, son of Isaac and Rebekah. After depriving his brother Esau of his birthright and their father's blessing by trickery, Jacob fled to the house of his uncle, Laban, where he worked and married Laban's daughters, Leah and Rachel. His wives and their handmaidens bore him 12 sons, who became the patriarchs of the 12 tribes of Israel. The story of Jacob is told in Genesis 25-35. Jacob personifies the nation of Israel.

Genesis, first book of the Old Testament (see Bible). Genesis tells of the beginning of the world, from God's creation of heaven and earth to the death of Joseph, the 11th son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob. The book falls into two unequal parts. The first part (chapters 1-11) is concerned with the primeval history of humankind; it contains stories about the first man and the first woman, the first murderer, the flood that God sent to destroy the world's wickedness, and the confounding of the speech and scattering abroad of later people. It also contains the first covenant made by God with humanity through Noah (9:9-17). The second part (chapters 12-50) is mainly an account of the lives of the Hebrew patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

The basic purpose of Genesis is to relate all of creation and history to God and to explain the role of Israel. The Book of Genesis was compiled from several sources dating between the 10th century and the 5th century BC. It is still regarded by many as a literal account of creation. Others see the book as myth or legend.Esau, in the Old Testament Book of Genesis (see Bible), son of Isaac and Rebekah and elder twin of Jacob. Esau sold his birthright to his brother (Genesis 25:21-34). He nevertheless attempted to secure his dying father's blessing, but Jacob circumvented him, and Esau received only a secondary blessing. Esau resolved to kill his brother, but Jacob fled. They later became reconciled. Esau is believed to represent the nation of Edom.

Isaac, Old Testament patriarch, son of Abraham and Sarah, half brother of Ishmael, and father of Jacob and Esau. The birth of Isaac was promised to Abraham and Sarah (Genesis 17:19, 21) after a long and childless marriage, as a sign that the blessings originally bestowed by God upon Abraham would be continued in Isaac, heir of the covenant. The events of Isaac's life are recounted in Genesis 21-28. The dominant story in the narrative is that of the projected sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22). According to this account, God tested Abraham's faith by asking him to sacrifice his beloved son. At the last moment, after God was convinced of the perfect obedience of both father and son, he accepted a ram as a substitute for the youth.

The New Testament alludes to Isaac as a precursor of Christ and the church (Galatians 3:16, 4:21-31). Isaac's obedience to his father to the point of self-sacrifice is associated with that of Christ (Hebrews 11:17-19).

Abraham or Abram, biblical patriarch, according to the Book of Genesis (11:27-25:10), progenitor of the Hebrews, who lived probably in the period between 2000 and 1500 BC. Muslims regarded Abraham, who they call Ibrahim, as an ancestor of the Arabs through his son Ishmael.

According to tradition, Abraham was originally called Abram; he was born in the city of Ur of the Chaldees, where he married his half sister Sarai, or Sarah. God promised to make Abraham a great nation, promised him a son by Sarai, and confirmed these promises by a covenant. Abraham attempted to save the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah from destruction by God. When Abraham was 86 years old, his first son, Ishmael, was born to Hagar, an Egyptian slave. Isaac, his second son, was born to Sarah in Abraham's 100th year. God demanded that Abraham sacrifice Isaac as a test of faith, but because of Abraham's unquestioning compliance, God spared Isaac's life. Abraham died at the biblical age of 175 and was buried beside Sarah in the Cave of Machpelah, in what is now Hebron, West Bank.Ishmael, in the Old Testament (see Bible), the elder son of Abraham. Ishmael's mother was Hagar, Egyptian handmaid to Abraham's wife, Sarah, who was barren. In answer to her prayers, Sarah conceived and bore a son, Isaac. Sarah subsequently demanded that Hagar and Ishmael be driven away. Ishmael settled in the wilderness, married an Egyptian woman, and became the progenitor of 12 tribes of desert nomads in Arabia. Muslims regard themselves as the descendents of Ishmael; they maintain that Hagar was the true wife of Abraham, and Ishmael was his favored son. Muslims also believe that Abraham offered Ishmael, not Isaac, for sacrifice.phar·i·see (fΰrΉξ-sκ) noun

1. Pharisee. A member of an ancient Jewish sect that emphasized strict interpretation and observance of the Mosaic law in both its oral and written form.

A hypocritically self-righteous person.

deceiver: dissembler, actor, shammer, hypocrite, canter, Pharisee, Pecksniff

phar·i·sa·ism (fΰrΉξ-sβ-ξz΄em) also phar·i·see·ism (-sκ-ξz΄em) noun

1. Pharisaism also Phariseeism . The doctrines and practices of the Pharisees.

Hypocritical observance of the letter of religious or moral law without regard for the spirit; sanctimoniousness.

Pharisees, so-called Jewish sect, more correctly a Jewish school, probably dating as a distinct body from the 2nd century BC. Their chief tendency was to resist all foreign influences that threatened to undermine the sacred religion of their fathers. They originated as the Hasidim, becoming known as Pharisees when John Hyrcanus was high priest of Judea in the 2nd century BC. Their doctrine was of an ethical, spiritual, and sometimes mystical Judaism, which later became the dominant form of Judaism. Jesus Christ, in his condemnation of the Pharisees recorded in the New Testament (Matthew 23), is referring to the hypocritical Pharisees, also condemned in the Talmud.Hasidim or Chasidim, in ancient Jewish history, especially pious persons. In passages in the books of Maccabees and the Talmud, the term refers to those who distinguished themselves by loyalty to Jewish law and by charitable deeds. Hasidim opposed the hellenizing efforts of King Antiochus IV of Syria, often going so far as to suffer death rather than transgress the Jewish law.

The name Hasidim is also applied to a mystical sect established about the mid-18th century by the leader the Baal Shem Tov. He stressed trust in God and advocated joyous worship. Hasidic groups were characterized by enthusiastic prayer services and by an emphasis on emotional piety as opposed to strictly disciplined study and ritual. The established rabbinical leaders and non-Hasidic Jewish communities strongly objected to the separatist Hasidim. A ban of excommunication was issued against the Hasidim in 1772, but the movement continued to grow rapidly.

Today, the total number of Hasidim throughout the world is about 250,000, primarily in Israel and the United States. The men spend much time in prayer and in the study of sacred works, mainly by Hasidic authors. The men dress in black, grow long beards and side locks, and keep their heads covered at all times with skull caps and broad-brimmed hats. The women dress modestly, with long skirts and long sleeves. Married women cover their hair with wigs or kerchiefs. The Habad community, based in Brooklyn, New York, is the most prominent Hasidic group in the United States.Israel, Kingdom of, ancient Hebrew state that included present-day Israel, with parts of Jordan and southern Syria. It developed under King Saul in the 11th century BC. It reached its height under his successors, David and Solomon. After Solomon's death in 922 BC, the country was divided into a northern kingdom that retained the name Israel, and a southern kingdom known as Judah.Judea, territory in southwest Asia and a region of historic Palestine. The region covers parts of modern-day Israel and the West Bank.

Judea was part of the Kingdom of Israel until about 922 BC. It then became an independent kingdom before being conquered by the Babylonians in the 6th century BC. Judea was a province of the empire of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. The Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria then controlled the region until the Jews revolted and created an independent Jewish state called Judea. When the Romans conquered the Jews in 63 BC, they divided the territory of Palestine into three units— Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Muslim Arab armies invaded Palestine in the 7th century AD. Judea, as part of Palestine, was then ruled successively by Seljuks, Fatimids, and European Crusaders (see Crusades). The Ottomans gained control of the region in 1517.

The British captured Palestine in 1917 and 1918. The state of Israel was established in Palestine in 1948, incorporating part of historical Judea. Today Israel uses the name Judea to refer to the section of ancient Judea that is within Israel's borders.

zealot: Pharisee, scribe, scribes and Pharisees

Using Capernaum as a base, Jesus and his disciples traveled to neighboring towns. He promised pardon and eternal life in heaven to the most hardened sinners, provided their repentance was sincere. This emphasis incurred the enmity of the Pharisees, who feared that his teachings might lead to disregard for the authority of the Torah. Despite this opposition, Jesus' popularity increased.

non-Christian sect: Pharisees, Sadducees

deceiver: dissembler, actor, shammer, hypocrite, canter, Pharisee, PecksniffSadducees, Jewish school, or party, that arose in the 1st century BC, taking its name from Zadok, in the Old Testament (see 2 Samuel 15:24-29) a priest during the reigns of Kings David and Solomon, or from the Zadokites (see 1 Kings 4:2-4), a family of priests. The Sadducees, an aristocratic party, acknowledged only the written Torah as binding, rejecting the scribes' traditional interpretation and development of the Law. Their criminal jurisprudence was so rigorous that the day on which their code was abolished by the Sanhedrin was declared a festival. They rejected Pharisaic tradition, which represented an older legal and religious standpoint. The Sadducees did not believe in a resurrection or in any personal immortality, and they denied angels and spirits. Sadduceeism is denounced by Jesus Christ in the phrase "beware of the leaven [that is, the doctrine] of the Pharisees and Sadducees" (Matthew 16:6, 12). The Sadducees disappeared with the fall of the Jewish state in AD 70.Johanan ben Zakkai (died about AD 80), Jewish teacher, student of the great teacher Hillel. He preserved the laws and rituals of the Jewish religion after the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem by the Roman emperor Titus in the year 70. During the siege of Jerusalem by the Roman armies, Johanan, a prominent member of the Pharisees, escaped from the city to the Roman encampment, according to tradition in a coffin borne by his pupils. He founded a school at Jabneh (near present-day Tel Aviv, Israel) with the permission of the Roman emperor Vespasian, who treated him well. Jabneh became the headquarters of the Jewish council, the Sanhedrin, of which Johanan was a member. For the next half century Johanan's school replaced Jerusalem as the spiritual center of Judaism. There, work began, in Johanan's lifetime, on the first part of the Talmud, the Mishnah.

John Hyrcanus, Simon's son, ruled from 134 until his death in 104 BC. He freed Judea from Syrian influence and expanded his domains. He never proclaimed himself king, but he did designate himself high priest. His departure from the ideals of the earlier Hasmonaeans antagonized a faction later known as the Pharisees, precipitating religious strife. Nevertheless, the Jewish commonwealth attained its greatest prosperity during his reign.Maccabees (family), family of Jewish rulers prominent in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, more correctly known as the Hasmonaeans. The Maccabees, whose exploits are recounted in the Old Testament books Maccabees, led the Jewish people in their struggle against the kingdom of Syria. Prominent members of the family include Mattathias, Judas, Jonathan, Simon, John Hyrcanus, and Hyrcanus II.

Mattathias, or Mattathiah, was a priest when Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes forbade the practice of Judaism in 168 BC. Mattathias refused to comply and fled to the mountains with his five sons and others to begin a revolt. He died in 167 BC, leaving his son Judas in command of the rebellion.

Judas, or Judah, became one of the great generals in Jewish history. He and his followers defeated several Syrian armies, and in 165 BC he restored the Jewish rites to the Temple in Jerusalem, a restoration that is commemorated by the Jewish festival Hanukkah. Syria recognized the religious liberty of the Jews in 163 BC, and Judas began to work for political independence. In 161 BC he was killed in battle.

Jonathan, Judas's brother and successor, continued to lead a small band of insurgents. In 157 BC he made peace with the Syrians, and five years later he became administrator of Judea. In 143 BC Jonathan was taken prisoner by Tryphon, pretender to the Syrian throne, and was ultimately killed, possibly in 142 BC.

Simon succeeded his brother Jonathan, and in 142 BC he negotiated a treaty with Syria, which recognized Judea as politically independent. In 141 BC he was chosen to be high priest and civil governor. Simon was assassinated by his son-in-law and chief rival for power in 135 BC.

John Hyrcanus, Simon's son, ruled from 134 until his death in 104 BC. He freed Judea from Syrian influence and expanded his domains. He never proclaimed himself king, but he did designate himself high priest. His departure from the ideals of the earlier Hasmonaeans antagonized a faction later known as the Pharisees, precipitating religious strife. Nevertheless, the Jewish commonwealth attained its greatest prosperity during his reign.

Hyrcanus II became king of Judea in 67 BC. However, his younger brother, Aristobulus II, seized the government. Hyrcanus, with the help of a resident of Jerusalem named Antipater, initiated a civil war that lasted until 63 BC. Rome became involved in the war, which resulted in victory for Antipater and Hyrcanus. In 40 BC Antigonus II, son of Aristobulus, captured Hyrcanus and proclaimed himself king of Judea. The Roman Senate declared Herod the Great king, however, and Herod put Antigonus to death. Hyrcanus was executed in 30 BC for plotting against Herod.Josephus, Flavius (AD 37 or 38-101?), Jewish historian, born in Jerusalem of both royal and priestly lineage. He was a member of the Pharisees, and also a public figure who, before the Jewish revolt against Rome (66), had made friends at the court of Emperor Nero.

Although accounts of his actions are conflicting, Josephus apparently prepared Galilee for the Roman onslaught and in 67 repulsed the advance of Vespasian, the Roman general who was soon to become emperor. Taken prisoner by Vespasian, Josephus was subsequently freed and adopted Vespasian's family name, Flavius. Thereafter, enjoying imperial patronage, he lived until his death in Rome and devoted himself to his writing.

His works include The Jewish War (in 7 books); Jewish Antiquities (in 20 books), a history of the Jews from the creation to AD 66; an autobiography, Life; and Against Apion, an invaluable work in which Josephus recapitulates writings on Jewish history that no longer exist.Herod the Great (73-4 BC), Roman-backed king of Judea (37-4 BC). Herod was born in southern Palestine. His father, Antipater, was made procurator of Judea by Julius Caesar in 47 BC, and the Roman Senate recognized Herod as king in 39 BC. His actual rule began two years later. The first years of his reign were troubled by hostility between two Jewish sects, the Sadducees and Pharisees, and an internal power struggle with the deposed Hasmonaean dynasty. Herod ultimately prevailed and afterward suppressed his political enemies.

The years from 25 to 13 BC were prosperous. Herod built or rehabilitated a chain of fortresses on the Judean frontier and began rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem. The final years of Herod's reign were embittered by the ceaseless and complicated political intrigues within his palace. According to the New Testament, Herod tried to kill the infant Jesus by massacring all the male babies in Bethlehem.