Environment, 1520 B.C.
A volcanic eruption on the Greek island of Thera (Santorini) destroys all life on the island
Political Events, 1525 B.C.
Egypt’s Amenhotep I dies after a 20-year reign that has secured the nation’s borders. His successor, who is not of royal blood, will reign until 1504 B.C. as Thutmose I, conquering Nubia.
Political Events, 1545 B.C.
Egypt’s Amasis I dies after a 23-year reign. His son will reign until 1525 B.C. as Amenhotep I, invading Nubia and warring with the Libyans and Syrians.
Political Events, 1568 B.C.
The New Kingdom that will rule Egypt until 332 B.C. is inaugurated at Thebes by the Diospolite (18th Dynasty) king Amasis who begins to drive out the Hyksos who invaded Egypt in 1680 B.C. and to reunite Upper and Lower Egypt.
Hyksos (Egyptian for "foreign rulers"), Semitic invaders, probably from Palestine and Syria, who conquered
Egypt in the early 17th century BC. They captured Memphis, Egypt, and established a stronghold at Avaris, but left the territory above Memphis under the rule of the old nobility. These vassals eventually drove out the foreign rulers. The only detailed ancient account of the Hyksos is cited by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. The Hyksos introduced the horse into Egypt and maintained tribute or trade relations with the Minoans and Babylonians.
Political Events, 1680 B.C.
Hyksos tribesmen invade Egypt from Palestine, Syria, and farther north. They wear sandals, which enable them to outfight the Egyptians on the hot sands, and introduce horses that will help them dominate the Egyptians for the next century.
Political Events, 1792 B.C.
Egypt’s 12th (Theban) Dynasty ends with the death of Amenemhet IV after 208 years, and the power of the Egyptian king declines.
Political Events, 1849 B.C.
Egypt’s Sesostris III dies after a 38-year reign in which he has invaded Judah and Syria to maintain Egyptian trade routes. He is succeeded by his son, who will reign until 1801 B.C. as Amenemhet III, developing mines in the Sinai region to keep the nation prosperous.
Political Events, 1970 B.C.
Egypt’s Amenemhet I dies after a 30-year reign that has founded the 12th Dynasty. He is succeeded by his son who has served as co-regent since 1980 B.C. and who will reign alone until 1935 B.C. as Sesostris. The new ruler will complete the conquest of Nubia.
Thebes (Egypt), ancient city and, for centuries, capital of ancient
Egypt. It lies on both sides of the Nile River about 725 km (about 450 mi) south of Cairo. Thebes entered recorded history during the Old Kingdom (2755?-2255 BC). Tombs of pharaohs dating from the 6th Dynasty (2407?-2255 BC) lie in the original necropolis on the west side of the Nile. The local deity of the city was Amon. The ruined Temple of Amon ranks among the best-preserved and most magnificent structures of Egyptian antiquity.
During the 9th and 10th dynasties (about 2230-2035 BC), Thebes emerged as administrative center of a powerful line of governors. The Theban governors won complete control of Egypt about 2035 BC, and Thebes became the capital of Egypt. During the 19th and 20th dynasties (1293-1070 BC), the pharaohs made additional contributions to the architectural splendor of the city. The Assyrians sacked Thebes in the 7th century BC. Although it was partly restored, the city declined after the collapse of the 31st Dynasty in 332 BC. The Romans destroyed Thebes late in the 1st century BC
Architecture, 2800 B.C.
A third pyramid erected at Giza by Egypt’s 4th Dynasty (Memphite) king Menkure is the smallest but most perfect of the pyramids at Giza. Menkure’s reign marks the beginning of his dynasty’s decline.
Art, 2850 B.C.
Khafra (see
2850 B.C.) erects a second pyramid at Giza.
Political Events, 2850 B.C.
Khafra (Khafre, or Chephren) rules as the third Egyptian king of the 4th Dynasty.
Art, 2850 B.C.
The Great Sphinx carved from rock at Giza by order of Khafra (see
2850 B.C.) is a wingless symbol of the god Harmachis in whose image the 189-foot-long monument is fashioned.
Political Events, 2900 B.C.
Egypt’s 4th Dynasty is founded by Cheops (Khufu), who will reign for 23 years. (Dates for all early rulers are approximate and controversial.)
Political Events, 2980 B.C.
Egypt’s 3rd Dynasty is founded by Zoser (Tosorthros), who will rule for 30 years with help from his counselor-physician Imhotep.
Architecture, 2980 B.C.
The pyramid of Zoser that Imhotep will erect at Sakkara (Step Pyramid) will be the world’s first large stone structure, a tomb copied in stonework from earlier brickwork piles.
Agricultural villages along the Nile were united by 3300 bc into 2 kingdoms, Upper and Lower Egypt, which were unified (c 3100 bc) under the pharaoh Menes. A bureaucracy supervised construction of canals and monuments (pyramids starting 2700 bc). Control over Nubia to the S was asserted from 2600 bc.
Brilliant Old Kingdom Period achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting, which reached their height during the 3d and 4th Dynasties, set the standards for subsequent Egyptian civilization. Hieroglyphic writing appeared by 3200 bc, recording a sophisticated literature that included religious writings, philosophies, history, and science.
An ordered hierarchy of gods, including totemistic animal elements, was served by a powerful priesthood in Memphis. The pharaoh was identified with the falcon god Horus. Other trends included belief in an afterlife and short-lived quasi-monotheistic reforms introduced by the pharaoh Akhenaton (c 1379-1362 bc).
After a period of dominance by Semitic Hyksos from Asia (c 1700-1550 bc), the New Kingdom established an empire in Syria. Egypt became increasingly embroiled in Asiatic wars and diplomacy. Conquered by Persia in 525 bc, it eventually faded away as an independent culture.
Technology, 9000 B.C.
The New Stone Age begins in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Most information from Microsoft Bookshelf
HISTORY. Page two of Egypt, and articas on Yin & Yang, Zoroaster.
yin and yang (noun)
polarity: yin and yang, male and female
China
During the Eastern Chou dynasty (770-256 bc), Chinese culture spread E to the sea and S to the Yangtze R. Large feudal states on the periphery of the empire contended for preeminence, but continued to recognize the Son of Heaven (king), who retained a purely ritual role enriched with courtly music and dance. In the Age of Warring States (403-221 bc), when the first sections of the Great Wall were built, the Ch'in state in the W gained supremacy and finally united all of China.
Iron tools entered China c 500 bc, and casting techniques were advanced, aiding agriculture. Peasants owned their land and owed civil and military service to nobles. Cities grew in number and size, although barter remained the chief trade medium.
Intellectual ferment among noble scribes and officials produced the Classical Age of Chinese literature and philosophy. Confucius (551-479 bc) urged a restoration of a supposedly harmonious social order of the past through proper conduct in accordance with one's station and through filial and ceremonial piety. The Analects attributed to him are revered throughout E Asia.
Mencius (d 289 bc) added the view that the Mandate of Heaven can be removed from an unjust dynasty. The Legalists sought to curb the supposed natural wickedness of people through new institutions and harsh laws; they aided the Ch'in rise to power. The Naturalists emphasized the balance of opposites- yin, yang- in the world. Taoists sought mystical knowledge through meditation and disengagement.
yin (yîn) noun
The passive, female cosmic principle in Chinese dualistic philosophy.
[Chinese (Mandarin) yìn, moon, shade, femininity.]
The feminist anti-pornography movement, no less than the feminist movement of a century ago, encourages the assumption that male and female sexuality, and possibly morality, are as unlike as yin and yang. Barbara Ehrenreich (b. 1941),
yang (yàng) noun
The active, masculine cosmic principle in Chinese dualistic philosophy.
[Chinese (Mandarin) yáng, sun, light, masculine element.]
Medicine, 2700 B.C.
Principles of herbal medicine and acupuncture originated by the legendary Chinese emperor
Shen Nung are based, in part, on the basic principles of yang and yin proposed a century ago by Fu Hsi. The body has 12 canals related to vital organs says Shen Nung. They circulate the two principles of yang and yin; puncturing the canals with small needles permits the escape of bad secretions or obstructions and restores the body's overall equilibrium.
Religion, 2800 B.C.
The yang and yin philosophy of nature originated by the legendary Chinese emperor Fu Hsi says that health and tranquility require perfect equilibrium- a harmonious relationship among the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water), which correspond to the five planets, the five seasons, and the five colors, sounds, senses, viscera, and tastes. The yang (male element) is always dominant, says Fu Hsi.
I Ching (ê jîng) noun
A Chinese book of ancient origin consisting of 64 interrelated hexagrams along with commentaries. The hexagrams embody Taoist philosophy by describing all nature and human endeavor in terms of the interaction of yin and yang, and the book may be consulted as an oracle.[Chinese (Mandarin) Yâ Jìng : Yâ, divination + Jìng, classic, book.]
Chinese Philosophy
Chinese Philosophy, collective designation for the various schools of thought originated by
Chinese scholars and sages. Chinese philosophy has passed through three distinct historical stages: the classical age (6th century to 2nd century BC), the medieval age (2nd century BC to 11th century AD), and the modern age (11th century to the present).
Classical Age In the late years of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty, which lasted from 1027 BC to 256 BC, a climate of political anarchy and social and economic change spawned a class of scholar-officials who aspired to restore order to society. The most important scholar was Confucius, who advocated a restoration of the imperial government and of social and family organizations. As part of the philosophy that became known as Confucianism, Confucius taught that each person must cultivate such virtues as honesty, love, and filial piety, bringing harmony to the hierarchy of family, society, and state. Mencius and Hsün-tzu were two disciples of Confucius. Mencius asserted that human nature was basically good. He stressed the ruler's responsibility for the people's welfare, and he also claimed for the people the right of rebellion. Hsün-tzu took the opposite view of rebellion, asserting that it was fundamentally evil. He endorsed formal education and a tendency toward rigid rules for the regulation of human conduct.
Chinese philosopher Lao-tzu is usually regarded as the founder of Taoism, the second great
philosophy of the classical age, which attempted to bring the individual into perfect harmony
with nature through a mystical union with the Way of Nature (Tao). Mohism, another school of thought, taught strict utilitarianism and mutual love among all people. Naturalism analyzed the workings of the universe based upon certain cosmic principles, of which the best known are yin and yang, representing nature's interacting dualities. Dialecticians moved toward a system of logic by analyzing the true meaning of words, to avoid the logical pitfalls inherent in language.
Basing their ideas on Hsün-tzu's teachings, the legalists developed a political philosophy that emphasized strict laws and harsh punishments to control every aspect of human society. All personal freedom was subordinated to their objective of creating a strong state under a ruler of unlimited authority. Legalism proved an effective instrument in creating the powerful and totalitarian Qin dynasty (221-206 BC).
The Confucian philosophers of the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220) welded a system of thought incorporating aspects of naturalism, Taoism, Confucianism, and legalism. Although Han Confucianism became the required learning for government service, its excessive superstitiousness produced opposition. Medieval Age Buddhism filtered into China from India and central Asia from the 1st to the 6th century AD. During this time the downfall of the Han dynasty led to political disunity and foreign invasion.
The teachings of Buddhism were basically religious, although its sophisticated explanations of the nature of existence gave it great philosophical importance.
The reunification of China under the Sui dynasty (589-618) and the Tang dynasty (618-907) ushered in several hundred years of religious and philosophical syncretism, the reconciliation of opposing religious creeds. This involved Taoism, Buddhism, and a new sort of Confucianism. This neo-Confucianism taught that a principle existed for all things in the universe, and knowledge of these principles would unite the individual with the universe and guide him or her in personal, social, and political relations. Buddhism, in contrast, taught that all things in the universe were ultimately empty, and enlightenment to this fact would lead the individual to reject mundane affairs. Taoism did not regard the universe as empty, but it sought to lead the individual away from human society and even to transcend life and death.
Modern Age
Neo-Confucianism found expression in three schools. In the 1100s Chu Hsi developed the doctrines of the School of Principle (rationalism), which asserted that all things were composed of two elements: principle (li), which was a reflection of the Great Ultimate (Tai-chi); and matter (ch'i). By accentuating li (fundamentally good human nature), and minimizing ch'i (physical propensities) in one's mind, the individual could comprehend the affairs of the universe and regulate them through the power of personal virtue.
In the School of Mind (idealism), 15th-century scholar-statesman Wang Yang-ming held that the mind was not a combination of li and ch'i, but was pure li. Because the mind was pure principle, it had the essential goodness of human nature, which had practical consequence. Eighteenth-century philosopher Tai Chen was the greatest proponent of the School of Practical Learning, which began in the 1600s. Known as empiricism, it asserted that principle, found only in things, could only be studied objectively through the collection and analysis of factual data.
Chinese philosophy in the 20th century has adapted systems derived from Western thought while attempting to use ideas from Eastern tradition. The Western philosophies most influential in 20th-century China have been pragmatism and materialism. The former, illustrated in the writings of Hu Shih, a student of American philosopher John Dewey, conceived of ideas as instruments to cope with actual situations and emphasized results. Materialism, consisting primarily of dialectical materialism as described by German political philosopher Karl Marx, has been the moving power in Chinese economic development.
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Zoroaster (zôr´o-às´ter, zor´-) Zarathustra (zàr´e-th¡´stre)
Sixth century B.C.Persian prophet who founded Zoroastrianism. Little is known about his life.
Zoroaster (circa 630-550 BC), Persian religious prophet, who founded Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster (known in ancient Persian as Zarathustra) was born in the eastern Persian land of Airyana Vaejah, probably during the period preceding that of the Achaemenian kings, although earlier dates have been suggested. When still a fairly young man he began receiving revelations from Ahura Mazda (the "Lord Wisdom"). His conversations with this godhead, and his difficulties while preaching, are recorded in the Gathas, part of the sacred scripture known as the Avesta. Apparently it was after years of struggle with priests of established cults (during which time he had made some converts among his relatives and others) that he found a champion in Vishtaspa, king of Chorasmia (now in Western Turkistan). Thereafter the religion preached by Zoroaster prospered. Zoroaster's homeland was mountainous, devoted to the raising of cattle, which were considered sacred animals. Through his religion, he had hoped to unite cattle herders against nomadic marauders and practitioners of certain sacrificial cults. Still, the intellectual depth of his system may well have exerted a profound influence on Western thought; Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers showed a great interest in his doctrines. It is at least likely that Zoroaster's ideas strongly affected the course of Judeo-Christian demonology, angelology, and eschatology. Influences have been noted in the Manual of Discipline found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Aryan peoples (Persians, Medes) dominated the area of present Iran by the beginning of the 1st millennium bc. The prophet Zoroaster (born c 628 bc) introduced a dualistic religion in which the forces of good (Ahura Mazda, "Lord of Wisdom") and evil (Ahriam) battle for dominance; individuals are judged by their actions and earn damnation or salvation. Zoroaster's hymns (Gathas) are included in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian scriptures. A version of this faith became the established religion of the Persian Empire and probably influenced later monotheistic religions.
Zoroastrianism, religion founded in ancient Persia by the prophet Zoroaster. The doctrines
preached by Zoroaster are preserved in his metrical Gathas (psalms), which form part of the
sacred scripture known as the Avesta.The basic tenets of the Gathas consist of a worship of Ahura Mazda (the "Lord Wisdom") and an ethical dualism opposing Truth (Asha) and Lie, which permeate the entire universe. All that is good emanates from Ahura Mazda. All evil is caused Angra Mainyu (the "Fiendish Spirit") and his assistants. Upon death each person's soul will be judged at the Bridge of Discrimination; the follower of Truth will cross and be led to paradise, and the adherents of Lie will fall into hell.
All evil will eventually be eliminated on earth in an onslaught of fire and molten metal.
Zoroaster apparently combined two religious systems. The first is the monotheistic worship of Wisdom and his emanations including Asha, outlined in the Gathas. The second system describes a cult that worships Lord Ahura, the custodian of Asha. This system is described in a portion of the Avesta called the Liturgy of the Seven Chapters, which was composed after Zoroaster's death.
The Gathas and the Seven Chapters form part of the larger liturgy called the Yasna. Other parts of the Yasna are the Yashts, which are hymns to individual deities, and the Vendidad, or Videvdat, a codification of ritual and law.
Probably the first Persian king to recognize the religion proposed by Zoroaster was Darius I.
Artaxerxes II (reigned 409-358 BC) also venerated Zoroastrian deities; in his reign the first
Persian temples were probably built. Under the rule of the Greek Seleucids (312-64 BC) and
Parthian Arsacids (250? BC-AD 224), cults of foreign gods flourished along with Zoroastrianism.
The new Persian dynasty of the Sassanids (AD 224-641) established Zoroastrianism as the state religion of Persia. Persia was gradually converted to Islam after its conquest by the Arabs in the 7th century. Zoroastrianism survived, however, in the mountainous regions of Yezd and Kermân. About 18,000 still live in Iran. Zoroastrians, called Parsis, are numerous and prosperous in India.
Incarnation, in religion, a god's assumption of an earthly form. In early times, priests and
kings were often considered divine incarnations. In ancient Roman and Greek religions, gods sometimes assumed human form and married mortals. In Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha is a divine being who came to earth as a teacher out of compassion for suffering humanity. In Jainism, Jina is regarded as a supernatural being who was incarnated and grew up sinless and omniscient. In Zoroastrianism, Zoroaster's body was created in heaven, fell to earth with the rain, and passed to his mother through the milk of heifers. In Hinduism, avatars are incarnations of the gods, especially of Vishnu. In Christianity, Jesus Christ is considered to be God in human form.
Magi, priestly caste in ancient Persia. They are thought to have been followers of Zoroaster,
the Persian teacher and prophet. Professing the doctrines of Zoroastrianism, they practiced a ritual that involved pouring libations of milk, oil, and honey over a flame while chanting
prayers and hymns. Gradually, the religion of the magi incorporated Babylonian elements,
including astrology, demonology, and magic. (The word magic is derived from the word magi.) By the 1st century AD, the magi were identified with wise men and soothsayers. Thus, the biblical magi who came from the East to worship the infant Jesus (see Matthew 2:1-12) were regarded as wise men. See also Wise Men of the East.