The Early Dynastic (or Archaic) Period, divided into the first three dynasties, 0 through the 2nd, started about 3200 BC. The earliest known writing using hieroglyphs dates from this period.

The Old Kingdom (about 2755-2255 BC) included the 3rd through the 6th dynasties. In the 4th Dynasty, the first true pyramid was built, followed by the Great Pyramid at Giza. Egyptian civilization reached a peak under the 4th Dynasty and maintained that high level in the 5th and 6th dynasties.

The First Intermediate Period, the 7th through the 10th dynasties, was a time of internal strife as the country's rule passed from a central authority to increasingly powerful nomarchs, rulers of separate districts.

In the Middle Kingdom Period (2134-1784 BC) of the 11th and 12th dynasties, Egypt was reunified under a central leader who diminished the power of regional nomarchs.

The Second Intermediate Period, the 13th through the 17th dynasties, was a time of turmoil and disunity. Rival dynasties ruled simultaneously, and the Hyksos people, invading from western Asia, established their own dynasty.

In the New Kingdom Period (1570-1070 BC), including the 18th through the 20th dynasties, the country was unified, and the borders were extended. The first tomb was built in the Valley of the Kings. One of the 18th Dynasty kings was Tutankhamen, known for his richly furnished tomb, which in AD 1922 was found nearly intact in the Valley of the Kings.

The Third Intermediate Period included the 21st through the 24th dynasties. As several dynasties competed for power, kings from the north vied with a line of high priests in the south.

The Late Period comprised the 25th through the 31st dynasties. Persia dominated the country during the 27th Dynasty, but Egypt regained its independence under the 28th and 29th dynasties. The 30th Dynasty was the last with native Egyptian rulers; in the 31st Dynasty the Persians again dominated.

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Archaeological records of ancient Egyptian civilization date back to 4000 bc. A unified kingdom arose around 3200 bc, and extended its way south into Nubia and north as far as Syria. A high culture of rulers and priests was built on an economic base of serfdom, fertile soil, and annual flooding of the Nile banks.

Imperial decline facilitated conquest by Asian invaders (Hyksos, Assyrians). The last native dynasty fell in 341 bc to the Persians, who were in turn replaced by Greeks (Alexander and the Ptolemies), Romans, Byzantines, and Arabs, who introduced Islam and the Arabic language. The ancient Egyptian language is preserved only in the liturgy of the Coptic Christians.

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Mi·no·an (mî-no¹en) adjective

Of or relating to the advanced Bronze Age culture that flourished in Crete from about 3000 to 1100 B.C.

Aegean Civilization, civilization that developed from about 3000 to 1200 BC (during the Bronze Age) around the Aegean Sea, mainly on Crete, the Cyclades Islands, and the mainland of Greece. There were two major Aegean cultures: the Minoan culture, which flourished in Crete; and the Mycenaean culture of the mainland. Nothing definite was known about the Aegean civilization until the late 19th century, when archaeologists discovered sites of such legendary cities as Troy, Mycenae, and Knossos.

In 1870 German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found in Turkey what is believed to be the ruins of Troy. In Greece he uncovered the sites of Mycenae and Tiryns. The discovery of palaces, pottery, ornaments, and royal tombs demonstrated the existence of a well-developed civilization that flourished from about 1500 to 1200 BC. In 1900 British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans discovered a palace complex at Knossos, Crete. Evans found clay tablets with two types of writing— called Linear A and Linear B— dating from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. Linear B is an early form of Greek, and Linear B tablets were found at various Mycenaean sites. Linear A, the language of Minoan Crete, has not yet been deciphered. The additional discovery of Linear B on Crete supports the conclusion that the mainland people, the Mycenaeans, gained ascendancy over the Minoans.

About 3000 BC a bronze-using people apparently arrived in the Aegean, perhaps from Asia Minor, thus introducing the Bronze Age to the area. On Crete, impressive buildings, frescoes, vases, and early writing are evidence of a thriving culture of the 2nd millennium BC, which came to be known as Minoan. Great palaces built around large courtyards were the focal points of these communities. The most magnificent of the palaces was at Knossos. The Minoans probably maintained a marine empire, trading with the Cyclades, the mainland, Sicily, Egypt, and various cities. The destruction of the Cretan palaces about 1450 BC was followed by the decline of the Minoans and the subsequent rise of the Mycenaeans. Heavily fortified Mycenaean mainland cities became the new centers of Aegean civilization. Shortly after 1200 BC the Aegean civilization collapsed, an occurrence that has been attributed by some scholars to natural disasters, or, most likely, the invasion of the Dorians.

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Israel, Kingdom of, ancient Hebrew state that included present-day Israel, with parts of Jordan and southern Syria. It developed under King Saul in the 11th century BC. It reached its height under his successors, David and Solomon. After Solomon's death in 922 BC, the country was divided into a northern kingdom that retained the name Israel, and a southern kingdom known as Judah.

Occupying the SW corner of the ancient Fertile Crescent, Israel contains some of the oldest known evidence of agriculture and of primitive town life. A more advanced civilization emerged in the 3d millennium bc. The Hebrews probably arrived early in the 2d millennium bc. Under King David and his successors (c.1000 bc-597 bc), Judaism was developed and secured. After conquest by Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks, an independent Jewish kingdom was revived, 168 bc, but Rome took effective control in the next century, suppressed Jewish revolts in ad 70 and ad 135, and renamed Judea Palestine, after the earlier coastal inhabitants, the Philistines.

Lost Tribes, in Jewish history, ten tribes that inhabited the kingdom of Israel. Many of the tribes' members were exiled after Assyria conquered Samaria, capital of Israel, in 722 BC. The fate of these people is unknown and has been the subject of speculation by historians and biblical scholars. The speculation has led to theories that the tribes traveled to prehistoric North and South America, or that they became the ancestors of various Hindu castes. Other theories have located the lost tribes in Ethiopia, Afghanistan, China, and Japan. Some scholars maintain that the tribes were assimilated with their captors.

Joshua, book of the Old Testament (see Bible). Authorship was ascribed traditionally to Joshua, the military leader chosen by Moses to be his successor; however, modern studies indicate that the book contains material drawn from a number of sources. The oldest passages may date from the 10th century BC. The Book of Joshua concludes the accounts of the early history of the Jews begun in Genesis, Exodus, and Deuteronomy. It begins (chapters 1-6) with an account of the Hebrews' entry into Canaan, the promised land. Chapters 7-12 relate how the Hebrews established themselves there. Much of the latter half of the book (chapters 13-24) describes how Joshua distributed the conquered land among the 12 tribes of Israel. The central theme of the Book of Joshua is that God will lead his people if they observe his law; but if they deny him, he will give them over to raiding nations.

Moses, Hebrew prophet and lawgiver, founder of the Jewish people. The story of his life is set forth principally in the Old Testament books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. According to this account, Moses was born in ancient Egypt, where the Hebrews lived at the time. When the pharaoh, the Egyptian ruler, ordered the death of all Hebrew male infants, Moses's mother set him afloat on the Nile River in a basket. He was rescued by the pharaoh's daughter, who brought the infant up as her own child. As an adult, Moses killed an Egyptian and fled from Egypt, living as a shepherd until he was 80 years of age. At this time Jehovah, the god of the Hebrews, commanded Moses to lead his people out of bondage in Egypt.

After convincing the pharaoh to release the Hebrews, Moses led them toward Canaan. A miracle allowed the Hebrews to cross the Red Sea and destroyed an Egyptian army that came upon them. When the Hebrews reached Mount Sinai, Moses ascended the mountain, where Jehovah gave him the Ten Commandments. After 40 years of wandering in the wilderness, the Hebrews came at last to Canaan, but Moses died without entering the promised land. Moses was reputedly the author of the Pentateuch (first five books of the Old Testament) as well as other parts of the Old Testament. However, scholars agree almost unanimously that these books are the work of many authors.

Hebrews (people), group of tribes thought to have migrated from Mesopotamia to Palestine during the 2nd millennium BC. The Hebrews moved to Egypt, where they were enslaved. After Moses led them from bondage in Egypt, they journeyed through the Wilderness (the Sinai) and, under Joshua, conquered and settled Palestine. The term Hebrew is applied in the Bible to Abraham. The name Hebrews seems to mean "those who pass from place to place." The Old Testament may suggest that in early times the Israelites were known to foreigners as Hebrews, and in later times applied the name to themselves (see Semites; Jews).

Abraham or Abram, biblical patriarch, according to the Book of Genesis (11:27-25:10), progenitor of the Hebrews, who lived probably in the period between 2000 and 1500 BC. Muslims regarded Abraham, who they call Ibrahim, as an ancestor of the Arabs through his son Ishmael.

According to tradition, Abraham was originally called Abram; he was born in the city of Ur of the Chaldees, where he married his half sister Sarai, or Sarah. God promised to make Abraham a great nation, promised him a son by Sarai, and confirmed these promises by a covenant. Abraham attempted to save the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah from destruction by God. When Abraham was 86 years old, his first son, Ishmael, was born to Hagar, an Egyptian slave. Isaac, his second son, was born to Sarah in Abraham's 100th year. God demanded that Abraham sacrifice Isaac as a test of faith, but because of Abraham's unquestioning compliance, God spared Isaac's life. Abraham died at the biblical age of 175 and was buried beside Sarah in the Cave of Machpelah, in what is now Hebron, West Bank.

Nomadic Hebrew tribes entered Canaan before 1200 bc, settling among other Semitic peoples speaking the same language. They brought from the desert a monotheistic faith said to have been revealed to Abraham in Canaan c 1800 bc and to Moses at Mt. Sinai c 1250 bc, after the Hebrews’ escape from bondage in Egypt. David (r 1000-961 bc) and Solomon (r 961-922 bc) united them in a kingdom that briefly dominated the area. Phoenicians to the N established colonies around the E and W Mediterranean (Carthage, c 814 bc) and sailed into the Atlantic.

A temple in Jerusalem became the national religious center, with sacrifices performed by a hereditary priesthood. Polytheistic influences, especially of the fertility cult of Baal, were opposed by prophets (Elijah, Amos, Isaiah).

Divided into two kingdoms after Solomon, the Hebrews were unable to resist the revived Assyrian empire, which conquered Israel, the N kingdom, in 722 bc. Judah, the S kingdom, was conquered in 586 bc by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II. But with the fixing of most of the biblical canon by the mid-4th cent. bc and the emergence of rabbis, Judaism successfully survived the loss of Hebrew autonomy. A Jewish kingdom was revived under the Hasmoneans (168-42 bc).

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Food and Drink, 621 B.C.

The Law of Moses in Deuteronomy (see 621 B.C.) imposes dietary restrictions, permitting meat only from any animal "that parts the hoof and has the hoof cloven in two, and chews the cud," but proscribing meat from camels, hares, and rock badgers as well as from pigs. Also proscribed as "unclean" are fish without fins and scales, certain birds, and anything "that dies of itself." And "You shall not boil a kid in its mother’s milk" (see Sharia, A.D. 629).

Political Events, 926 B.C.

Judea is invaded by Egypt’s pharaoh Sheshonk, who plunders Jerusalem and many other Judean cities.

Political Events, 1005 B.C.

Jerusalem falls to David of Hebron, who is anointed king of Judea by the prophet Samuel and will reign until 961 B.C., breaking the power of the Philistines and defeating the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites.

David (king) (?-961 BC), king of Judah and Israel, founder of the Judean dynasty. Several accounts of his accomplishments occur in the Old Testament (see Bible). The youngest son of Jesse, a shepherd of Bethlehem, David became known for his musical skill and for his courage, exemplified by his victorious encounter with the Philistine giant Goliath. David became an armor bearer to Saul, the first king of Israel. David married Michal, Saul's daughter, and befriended Jonathan, Saul's son, but he eventually incurred the jealousy of Saul, who banished him from the court. David spent the next period of his life in exile.

David returned to his native country after Saul and three of Saul's four sons were dead. Becoming king of Judah at Hebron in 1000 BC, David reigned until about 993 BC, when he became king of Israel. David subsequently defeated the Philistines, as well as others. He firmly established Israel as an independent state, extended its dominions, and made Jerusalem its religious and political center.

During the siege of Rabbath, David committed adultery with Bathsheba. This episode was followed by recurring troubles with his children, who included Absalom, Adonijah, and Solomon, his son by Bathsheba.

Saul (lived 11th century BC), first king of ancient Israel, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin. His reign is recounted in 1 Samuel 8-15. A capable military leader, Saul gradually began experiencing periods of intense depression and became jealous of David, his future successor as king, ultimately attempting to kill him. Saul died battling the Philistines on Mount Gilboa‘ (in what is now Israel).

Political Events, 1160 B.C.

Egypt’s Ramses V dies. His mummifed remains will show that the pharaoh had smallpox.

Ramses III (reigned 1182-1151 BC), Egyptian king of the 20th Dynasty, a great military leader who repeatedly saved the country from invasion. Ramses defeated attacks by Libyans from the west and routed invaders known as the Sea Peoples. He also constructed major temples and palaces. Ramses was the last great ruler of ancient Egypt. Following his death, Egypt suffered centuries of weakness and foreign domination.

Political Events, 1198 B.C.

Egypt’s 20th Dynasty entrenches itself as its second king begins a 31-year reign as Ramses III. He will rally the Egyptians against a confederation of Philistines, Sardinians, Greek Danaoi, and other sea peoples.

Political Events, 1237 B.C.

Egypt’s Ramses II dies after a 67-year reign in which he has used forced Israelite labor to build the treasure cities of Pithom and Ramses. His son Merneptah will reign until 1215 B.C.

Political Events, 1272 B.C.

Egypt’s Ramses II marries a daughter of the Hittite king and arranges a permanent peace with the Hittites.

Human Rights and Social Justice, 1275 B.C.

A 40-year (to 1235) Israelite migration begins after 3 centuries of Egyptian oppression. The prophet Moses and his brother Aaron lead tribesmen and their flocks of sheep out of Egypt toward the Dead Sea in Canaan on a roundabout journey that will take them through the Sinai Peninsula, Kadesh, Aelana, and Petra.

Ram·e·ses II also Ram·es·ses II (ràm¹î-sêz´) or Ram·ses II (ràm¹sêz´) Known as "Rameses the Great."

14th-13th century B.C. King of Egypt (1304-1237 B.C.) whose reign was marked by the building of numerous monuments. He was probably king during the Jewish exodus from Egypt.

Ramses II (reigned 1279-1212 BC), ancient Egyptian king, third ruler of the 19th Dynasty. During his early reign Ramses fought a long war against the Hittites to regain former Egyptian territories in Africa and western Asia. In 1258 BC a treaty was signed whereby the contested lands were divided and Ramses agreed to marry the daughter of the Hittite king. The remaining years of his rule were distinguished by the construction of great monuments.

Architecture, 1304 B.C.

The pharaoh Seti (see 1304 B.C.) has completed a colonnaded hall at Karnak begun by his father Ramses I and has also built a magnificent sanctuary at Abydos dedicated to the great Egyptian gods.

Egypt’s pharaoh Seti I dies after a reign in which he has defeated the Libyans west of the Nile Delta and made peace with the Hittites in Syria. Seti’s son will reign until 1237 B.C. as Ramses II.

Political Events, 1325 B.C.

Egypt’s Ramses I dies and is succeeded by his son, who has served since last year as co-regent. He will reign until 1304 B.C. as Seti I.

Political Events, 1327 B.C.

Egypt’s Harmhab dies and is succeeded by the aged Ramses, who will plan and begin a great hypostyle hall at Karnak.

Political Events, 1350 B.C.

The Egyptian throne is seized by the soldier Harmhab, who will reorganize the country’s administration and reign until 1315 B.C., founding Egypt’s 19th Dynasty.

Akhenaton or Ikhnaton, also called Amenhotep IV, pharaoh of Egypt from about 1375 to 1358 BC. The last important ruler of the 18th Dynasty and the first historical figure to establish a religion based on the concept of monotheism, Akhenaton established the cult of Aton, or Aten, the sun god. He moved his capital to a new city, ordered the obliteration of all traces of the religion of his ancestors, and fought bitterly against the powerful priests of the god Amon, or Amen. This religious revolution profoundly influenced Egyptian artists, who turned to a much more realistic representation of nature. After his death, the old polytheistic religion revived, and Egyptian art once more became ritualized.

A·khe·na·ton or A·khe·na·ten (ä´ke-nät¹n, äk-nät¹n) also Ikh·na·ton (îk-nät¹n)

Originally A·men·ho·tep IV (ä´men-ho¹tèp, àm´en-) Died c. 1358 B.C.

King of Egypt (1375?-1358?) who rejected the old gods and initiated a new form of sun worship.

Political Events, 1379 B.C.

Egypt’s Amenhotep III dies after a 38-year reign in which Babylonia has recognized Egyptian supremacy. The pharaoh has led a successful expedition into Upper Nubia above the second cataract of the Nile, developed his capital of Thebes into a monumental city of great temples, pylons, and colossi, erected hypostyle halls at Karnak, built the Temple of Amun in Luxor, and reigned in an era of prosperity and magnificence. Amenhotep is succeeded by his son, who will reign until 1362 B.C. as Amenhotep IV (Ikhnaton), but the Hittite king Suppiluliumas will take advantage of Egypt’s weakness in the next 35 years to build an empire that will extend south from Anatolia to the borders of Lebanon.

Political Events, 1417 B.C.

Egypt’s Thutmose IV dies and is succeeded by his brilliant son, who will reign in luxury and peace until 1379 as Amenhotep III, the last great ruler of the New Kingdom.

Political Events, 1450 B.C.

Egypt’s Thutmose III dies after a splendid 33-year reign. His son, who has ruled jointly for the past year, will remain until 1424 B.C. as Amenhotep II with successful campaigns in Judea and on the Euphrates.

Environment, 1470 B.C.

A volcanic eruption on the Greek island of Thera that is far more violent than the eruption of 1520 B.C. deposits ashes on Crete and emits poisonous vapors that destroy the Minoan civilization of 1600 B.C. Seismic waves 100 to 160 feet high, created by the eruption, rush in to fill the void created at Thera, temporarily dropping water levels on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean.

Political Events, 1483 B.C.